Introduction

Over the past three decades since the Dayton Peace Agreement, political language in Bosnia and Herzegovina has significantly shaped political practice and institutional arrangements. However, rather than consistently contributing to legal clarity, democratic deliberation, and institutional coherence, political language has often reflected and reinforced ethnopolitical narratives and practices. These have led to institutional stalemate, parallel decision-making structures, and limited state functioning.

As a result, key political and constitutional concepts have gradually diverged from their established meanings within the European legal and political framework. This has led to ambiguities in interpretations and competing conceptual understandings, affecting institutional performance, public administration, and the state’s capacity to function in accordance with democratic governance, the rule of law, and civic equality.

To address these challenges, this glossary provides a structured analytical overview of frequently used political terms in public discourse and institutional practice. Its purpose is to distinguish between concepts shaped by hegemonic or particularistic interpretations and those founded on European constitutional standards and international legal norms. By treating political language as an integral element of institutional practice, the glossary highlights its direct implications for policy formulation, institutional interaction, and the implementation of reforms.

Each of the seventy-one terms in the glossary is examined through five analytical dimensions: prevailing hegemonic interpretation, function within existing power structures, European and international legal meaning, institutional and political consequences of inconsistent or politicised usage, and proposed use in line with democratic and European standards. This approach ensures greater conceptual consistency and contributes to a clearer understanding of how terminology influences institutional behaviour and reform processes.

Aligning political language with European standards is a crucial supporting element to Bosnia and Herzegovina’s broader reform agenda. In this context the glossary should be understood as serving as a complementary analytical tool, facilitating institutional dialogue, supporting policy coherence, and contributing to a shared conceptual framework relevant for European integration processes. It is intended to assist policymakers, institutions, and stakeholders in identifying terminological inconsistencies and promoting the use of language compatible with the principles and practices of the European Union.

1. Constituent peoples

Hegemonic meaning: Reframed as sovereign ethnic groups with political rights that supersede those of the state and its citizens.

Function in the power structure: Transforms ethnic elites into quasi-sovereign actors; enables their vetoes, territorial claims, and institutional blockades.

European/international meaning: A historical–cultural category with no sovereign political authority; sovereignty belongs exclusively to the state and its citizens.

Consequences: Eliminates equality of citizens; undermines state unity; legitimises ethnic oligopolies.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: ‘citizens’ and ‘political nation’ as rightful holders of political rights.

2. Constitutive (Konstitutivan) — used to legitimise power of veto and ethnic entitlement

Hegemonic meaning: Defined as a political status granting collective veto power and territorial entitlement.

Function in the power structure: Blocks institutions and enables ethnic elites to override democratic processes.

European/international meaning: Describes historical participation in forming a Constitution — not a source of sovereignty.

Consequences: Used to justify narratives of partition. 

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using it only as a historical descriptor, not as a term marking  ‘constitutional power’.

3. People (narod) – (Narod) — term misused to replace citizens by ethnic collectivities

Hegemonic meaning: Used as a synonym for “nation,” making it possible for ethnic groups to claim state-level authority.

Function in the power structure: Replaces citizens by ‘ethnic collectivities’.

European/international meaning: ‘People’ refers to the citizens as a whole, and not an ethnic group.

Consequences: Delegitimises state institutions.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘citizens,’ ‘population,’ or ‘electorate’ instead.

4. Nation (Nacija) — reduced to ethnicity instead of political community

Hegemonic meaning: Reduced to ethnicity; excludes those who do not belong to the dominant ethnic group.

Function in the power structures: Turns the state into an ethnic property.

European/international meaning: The political community of citizens.

Consequences: Destroys civic identity; creates a divided politics.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Nation = all citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

5. Territory belonging to a people — part of the state territory claimed by an ethnic group to be their own

Hegemonic meaning: Presents territory as an ethnic property.

Function in the power structure: Supports secession, partition, and irredentism.

European/imyernational meaning: Territory belongs exclusively to the state.

Consequences: Creates proto-state ethnic zones.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘state territory’ or ‘administrative units’ instead.

6. Vital national interest – an ethnic mechanism disguised as a tool for protection. Hegemonic meaning: A tool for exercising an ethnic veto to stop political decisions from being made.

Function in the power structure: Enabling political elites to block any state institution or law from being passed.

European/international meaning: Protection of minorities that is narrowly defined and based on individual rights.

Consequences: Institutional paralysis.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Limiting it to genuine protection of human rights.

7, Legitimate Representation — doctrine claiming only ethnic members may represent ‘their people’

Hegemonic meaning: A representative is only ‘legitimate’ if they belong to a certain ethnic group.

Function in the power structure: Removes democratic legitimacy; Ethnic elites retain monopoly over the political functions.   

Consequences: Destroys political pluralism.

European/international meaning: Legitimacy is derived from the electoral will of the citizens.

Consequences: Destroys political pluralism.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Representation is electoral, not ethnic.

8. Three Peoples / Three Nations — makes the state appear as if created as a result of an agreement between ethnic groups and not a sovereign state

Hegemonic meaning: Defines Bosnia and Herzegovina as a tripartite ethnic arrangement rather than a state.  

Function in the power structures: Delegitimises sovereignty; promotes the idea of Bosnia as a state created by an “agreement made by three ethnic groups.” 

European/internationalmeaning: A state is never constituted by three or more ethnic groups, but by its citizens. Consequences: Blocks constitutional and institutional reforms.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘three ethnic groups’ where relevant; reserve the term ‘nation’ for the state only.

9. Bosniaks / Croats / Serbs (as political categories) — civic status of the Bosnian citizens replaced by ethnic identity

Hegemonic meaning: Ethnic identity is elevated to the primary political identity.

Function in the power structures: Reduces citizens to ethnic subjects; abolishes civic identity.

European/international meaning: Ethnic identities are cultural, not political.

Consequences: Produces deep segmentation and competing sovereignty.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ethnic labels only for cultural designation, not for political entitlement.

10. Ethnic Equality — replaces equality of citizens with equality of ethnic blocs

Hegemonic meaning: Replaces equality of citizens by equality of ethnic groups.     

Function in the power structures: Eliminates individual rights; legitimises collective vetoes.   European/international meaning: Each individual citizen is equal before the law.  Consequences: Counters EU human-rights doctrine.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘equality of citizens’ and ‘non-discrimination.’

11. Ethnic Rights — defining  group rights as superior to individual rights

Hegemonic meaning: Portrays ethnic groups as those holding collective political rights that are superior to those of the citizens.

Function in the power structures: Allows political elites to claim special political privileges and justify institutional blockades.

European/international meaning: Rights belong to individuals; minorities have their cultural and not sovereign rights.

Consequences: Undermines civic equality and state sovereignty.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards : Using terms ‘human rights’, ‘minority cultural rights’, ‘citizens’ rights’.

12. Constitutive Equality — replacing equality of individuals by equality of ethnic groups. 

Hegemonic meaning: Claims political equality exists only when ethnic groups have equal powers. Function in the power structure: Turns governance into ethnic balancing, not a democratic process. European meaning: Equality before the law belongs to individuals. Consequences: Blocks institutional reforms; contradicts ECHR standards. 

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘equality of citizens’

13. Ethnic Representation — assigning public roles by ethnicity, not by election

Hegemonic meaning: Political mandates are tied to ethnicity rather than democratic choice. Function in the power structures: Turns institutions into ‘ethnic corporations’.

European:international meaning: Representation is determined by election.

Consequences: Suppresses pluralism and stifles professionalism.

Use as proposed in line with dear mocratic standards: Using ‘electoral representation’.

14. Bosnia as a Multiethnic State — misinterpreted as an ‘ethnic condominium’

Hegemonic meaning: Suggests the state exists only as a a result of an ‘agreement made among ethnic groups’.

Function in the power structures: Reduces sovereignty to ethnic arithmetic.

European/international meaning: Multiethnic is used to describe a society, not a constitutional structure.

Consequences: Normalises separatist logic.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Bosnia is a sovereign civic state with a multiethnic population.

15. Ethnic Interests — presenting agendas of political elites as interests of an entire ethnic group

Hegemonic meaning: Political goals of elites are framed as collective ethnic needs.

Function in the power structures: Justifies vetoes and obstructions.

European/international meaning: Only the interests of citizens’ have legitimacy.

Consequences: Ongoing crisis and corruption.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘public interest’ or ‘citizens’ interests.

16. Internal International Relations — treating ethnic groups as if they were states

Hegemonic meaning: Implies that ethnic groups within Bosnia relate to one another like states. Function in the power structures: Delegitimises state sovereignty.

European/international meaning: International (inter-state) law applies only to the relations between states.

Consequences: Dismantles the concept of unified sovereignty.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Use ‘inter-state relations’ only for foreign policy.

17. Bosnia as an Impossible State — narrative claiming Bosnia is a state that can’t be governed

Hegemonic meaning: Claims Bosnia cannot function and therefore external or ethnic solutions are needed.

Function in the power structure: Justifies separatism and obstruction.

European/international meaning: Bosnia is an internationally recognised sovereign state.

Consequences: Creates cynicism, fatalism, and policy paralysis.  

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Referring to Bosnia as a sovereign, internationally recognised state.

18. Ethnic Territory — redefining administrative units as ethnic territories

Hegemonic meaning: Territory is portrayed as belonging to an ethnic group.

Function in the power structures: Supports claims for autonomy or secession.

European/international meaning: Territory belongs to the state.

Consequences: Destabilises governance and fuels conflict.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘administrative region’, ‘state territory’.

19. Ethnic Federalism — euphemism for territorial partition

Hegemonic meaning: Introduced as democratic, but actually enforces ethnic separation.

Function in the power structures: Creates proto-state units.

European/international meaning: Federalism ensures functionality, not ethnic division.

Consequences: Counters EU constitutional doctrine.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘functional regionalisation’.

20. Equality of Entities — falsely presenting administrative units as sovereign equals

Hegemonic meaning: Entities are treated as sovereign units.

Function in the power structure: Weakens state authority and strengthens separatism.

European/international meaning: Entities cannot hold sovereignty.

Consequences: Institutional instability.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘equality of citizens before the law’.

21. Ethnic Veto — blocking democratic governance through ethnic-based obstruction

Hegemonic meaning: Presented as a protective mechanism for ethnic groups, but used as a tool for political obstruction.

Function in the power structures: Enables political elites to block any institutional process regardless of democratic mandate.

European/international meaning: Collective ethnic veto is incompatible with EU democratic standards.

Consequences: Ongoing paralysis of governance. 

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Limiting vetoes to narrowly defined protection of individual rights.

22. Ethnic Balance of Power — replacing democratic accountability with ethnic bargaining

Hegemonic meaning: Institutional architecture framed as balancing competing ethnic sovereignties.

Function in the power structures: Keeps the system permanently unstable and dependent on ethnic political elites.

European/international meaning: Democracy is based on individual rights and electoral legitimacy, not on ethnic balancing.

Consequences: Undermines rule of law.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘institutional accountability’ and ‘separation of powers’.

23. Ethnic Majority — misused to claim political dominance over a territory

Hegemonic meaning: Used to justify domination or exclusive political authority over a territory.

Function in the power structures: Supports segregation, partition, and ‘entitlement’ narratives.

European/international meaning: Majority refers to electoral outcomes, not ethnic composition.

Consequences: Destroys civic equality. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘electoral majority’.

24. Ethnic Minority — politicising cultural identity into claims of sovereignty

Hegemonic meaning: Misused to claim political, not cultural rights.

Function in the power structures: Shifts minority protections from individual to collective ethnic sovereignty.

European/international meaning: Minority rights are cultural and individual.

Consequences: Distorts constitutional principles.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘minority communities’ within a civic-rights framework.

25. Ethnic Autonomy — euphemism for territorial ethnopolitical control

Hegemonic meaning: A euphemism for territorial separation or formation of a proto-state.

Function in the power structures: Instrument for weakening central state authority.

European/international meaning: Autonomy is functional, not ethnic.

Consequences: Destabilisation and fragmentation.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘local self-governance’ or ‘regional competencies’.

26. Entity Sovereignty — false claim that administrative units within the state possess original sovereignty

Hegemonic meaning: Portrays the entities as original sovereign subjects.

Function in the power structures: Facilitates secessionist narratives.

European/international meaning: Sovereignty belongs exclusively to the state.

Consequences: Weakens constitutional order.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘administrative units within a sovereign state’.

27. Historical Rights of a People — mythologising history to justify political claims

Hegemonic meaning: Invoked to justify territorial or constitutional claims.

Function in the power structures: Creates mythological grounds for an ethnic group to make a claim over a territory as their own.

European/international meaning: Modern states rest on legal-constitutional rights, not on historical claims.

Consequences: Fuels conflict and revisionism.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘constitutional rights’.

28. Asymmetric Statehood — misused to weaken central institutions

Hegemonic meaning: Claims Bosnia is inherently unbalanced due to ethnic composition.

Function in the power structures: Justifies weakening of the state and empowering its internal administrative units.

European/international meaning: Asymmetry refers to administrative distribution, not ethnic hierarchy.

Consequences: Institutional incoherence.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘functional decentralisation’.

29. Collective Identity as a Political Category — replacing individual citizenship with an ethnic belonging

Hegemonic meaning: Treats ethnic identity as a political and constitutional subject.

Function in the power structures: Erases the individual and strengthens ethnic collectivism.

European/international meaning: Identity is cultural and individual.

Consequences: Destroys civic statehood.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘individual rights’ and ‘citizenship’.

30. Ethnic Key (Nacionalni ključ) — distributing positions by ethnic quota

Hegemonic meaning: Assigning of public positions is based on an ethnic formula.

Function in the power structures: Locks institutions into ethnic criteria and reduces the level of professionalism.

European/international meaning: Public office must be based on merit and elections.

Consequences: Inefficiency and lack of public trust.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using ‘equal opportunity’ and merit-based public service.

31. Ethnic Parity — replacing equality of citizens with engineered ethnic symmetry

Hegemonic meaning: Claims political equality exists only when ethnic groups hold equal institutional powers.

Function in the power structures: Blocks democratic decision-making and enforces ethnic bargaining.

European/international meaning: Equality before the law belongs to individuals.

Consequences: Systemic paralysis; illegitimacy of institutions. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “legal equality” and “democratic proportionality”.

32. Ethnic Threat — manufacturing fear of other ethnic groups to maintain control

Hegemonic meaning: Claims that another ethnic group endangers survival or rights of “our people.”

Function in the power structures: Mobilises fear, radicalises constituencies.

European/international meaning: Security threats are institutional, not ethnic.

Consequences: Deepening divisions and  extremism.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “security risks” without ethnic framing.

33. Historic Territory of a People — mythic territorial claims replacing legal borders

Hegemonic meaning: Invokes mythological history to justify territorial entitlement.

Function in the power structures: Supports irredentism and secession.

European/inteenational meaning: Borders are legal, not ethnic-historical.

Consequences: Destabilises inter-state relations.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “state territory” or “jurisdiction”

34. Collective Fear — politicised emotional control of ethnic communities

Hegemonic meaning: Artificially generated fear maintains loyalty to ethnic political elites.

Function in the power structures: Prevents cross-ethnic cooperation and pluralism.

European/international meaning: Politics must rely on rational deliberation.

Consequences: Erodes democratic culture. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “public concern” grounded in evidence.

35. Consensus of Peoples — substituting democratic consensus with ethnic agreements

Hegemonic meaning: Frames political decisions as requiring agreement among ethnic groups.

Function in the power structures: Allows ethnic political elites to override state institutions.

European/international meaning: Consensus is among elected representatives, not tribal categories.

Consequences: Destroys parliamentary democracy.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “institutional consensus” or “parliamentary compromise”.

36. Ethnic Vital Interests — expanding protection of minorities protection into unlimited veto power

Hegemonic meaning: Used as a broad justification for blocking any policy.

Function in the power structures: Obstructs reforms and governance.

European/international meaning: Vital interests must be narrowly defined in line with the  human-rights standards.

Consequences: Blocks EU integration.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Strictly defined in line with the European norms on minority-rights.

37. Ethnic Federal Units — advancing partition under the guise of federalism

Hegemonic meaning: Presented as democratic but actually promotes ethnic proto-states.

Function in the power structures: Weakens the state.

European/international meaning: Federalism enhances functionality, not ethnic division.

Consequences: Contradicts EU constitutional models.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “functional regions”.

38. Legitimate Political Will of a People — a fictitious  collective will used to override institutions

Hegemonic meaning: Claims that ethnic groups have collective political will independent of elections.

Function in the power structures: Delegitimises elected authorities.

European/international meaning: Political will is derived solely from citizens’ votes. Consequences: Destroys accountability.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “voters’ mandate”

39. Ethnic Cohesion — enforcing conformity within an ethnic group as political legitimacy

Hegemonic meaning: Ethnic cohesiveness is portrayed as a prerequisite for valid politics.

Function in the power structures: Suppresses dissent, reinforces authoritarian control.

European/international meaning: Democracies value ideological, not ethnic cohesion.

Consequences: Weakens pluralism.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards:,Using “democratic cohesion” or “institutional coherence”.

40. Sovereign Equality of Peoples — false claim that ethnic groups hold sovereignty equal to that of a state

Hegemonic meaning: Claims that ethnic groups possess sovereignty.

Function in the power structures: Legitimises parallel authorities and secessionism.

European:international meaning: Sovereignty belongs only to the state and its citizens.

Consequences: Counters UN Charter and EU constitutional order.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “sovereign equality of states”

41. Natural Right of a People — mythical claim elevating ethnic groups above constitutional order

Hegemonic meaning: Portrays ethnic groups as bearers of inherent pre-political rights superior to constitutional norms.

Function in the power structures: Justifies claims to territory, autonomy, or sovereignty outside legal frameworks.

European:international meaning: Modern constitutionalism recognises only the rights of individuals and states.

Consequences: Undermines rule of law; legitimises secessionist narratives.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “constitutional rights”, “human rights”, or “civic rights”.

42. Ethnic Self-Determination — wrongly applied doctrine used to justify secession

Hegemonic meaning: Interpreted as the right of ethnic groups within a state to create their own state entities.

Function in the power structures: Supports secession and territorial fragmentation.

European/international meaning: Applies to colonial contexts or peoples under occupation, not ethnic groups in sovereign states.

Consequences: Threatens territorial integrity.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “citizens’ self-determination” through democratic elections.

43. Historical Compromise of Three Peoples — denying constitutional sovereignty of the state

Hegemonic meaning: Frames the state as a result of a temporary agreement among ethnic groups.

Function in the power structures: Delegitimises Bosnia and Herzegovina’s sovereignty.

European:international meaning: States arise from legal continuity, not tribal agreements.

Consequences: Creates institutional uncertainty. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Referring to the “constitutional order of Bosnia and Herzegovina”.

44. Ethnic Collective Memory — politicising history for ethnic mobilisation

Hegemonic meaning: Selective memory turned into political capital.

Function in the power structures: Mobilises identity politics and blocks reconciliation.

European/international meaning: Memory is cultural, not constitutional.

Consequences: Produces parallel historical narratives.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “public memory” or “historical record”.

45. Ethnic Consensus — ethnic veto disguised as a ‘necessary agreement’

Hegemonic meaning: Decisions require approval by ethnic elites.

Function in the power structures: Eliminates democratic institutions.

European/international meaning: Consensus refers to institutional process, not an ethnic agreement.

Consequences: Blocks governance.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “parliamentary consensus” or “coalition agreement”.

46. National Survival — turning policy disagreements into existential ethnic narratives

Hegemonic meaning: Political disagreement framed as existential threat to “our people.”

Function in the power structures: Mobilises fear and justifies authoritarian control.

European/international meaning: Politics concerns policies, not ethnic survival.

Consequences: Prevents compromise and rational debate.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “community welfare” or “policy impact”.

47. Demographic Threat — using shifts in population to alarm other ethnic group(s)

Hegemonic meaning: Demographic shifts portrayed as ethnic danger.

Function in the power structures: Enforces segregation and exclusionary politics.

European/international meaning: Demographic change is a neutral sociological process.

Consequences: Fuels xenophobia and ethnic hostility. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using”population trends” or “migration analysis”.

48. Constitutional Engineering of Peoples — embedding ethnic dominance into legal structure

Hegemonic meaning: Designing institutions to preserve ethnic control.

Function in the power structures: Allocates power by ethnic formula, not democracy.

European/international meaning: Constitutions protect individuals, not ethnic blocs.

Consequences: Structural discrimination.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “constitutional reform for civic equality”.

49. Ethnopolitical Interests — political elite agendas masked as interests of an entire people

Hegemonic meaning: Interests of political elites are equated to those of an ethnic population.

Function in the power structures: Justifies corruption and authoritarianism.

European/international meaning: Legitimate interests originate from the citizens.

Consequences: Distorts representation.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “public interest”.

50. Ethnic Administrative Units — redefining administrative boundaries into ethnic domains

Hegemonic meaning: Administrative regions are framed as ethnic ‘lands’.

Function in the power structures: Weakens unified governance.

European/international meaning: Administrative units are neutral.

Consequences: Entrenches division.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “administrative region” or “municipality”.

51. Ethnic Political Community — replacing civic community with ethnic collectivity

Hegemonic meaning: Portrays ethnic groups as the primary political communities, superseding the civic state.

Function in the power structures: Weakens state identity and legitimises parallel political structures.

European/international meaning: The political community is about citizens, not ethnic blocs.

Consequences: Fragmentation of state authority.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “political community of citizens”.

52. Ethnic Constitutional Order — redefining the constitution as an ethnic agreement

Hegemonic meaning: Defines the constitution as an agreement among ethnic groups rather than a legal framework for all citizens.

Function in the power structures: Allocates sovereignty to ethnic elites rather than institutions.

European/international meaning: Constitution represents supreme legal order of the state.

Consequences: Structural discrimination and instability.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “constitutional order of Bosnia and Herzegovina”.

53. Ethnic Institutional Balance — enforcing ethnic quotas instead of functional governance

Hegemonic meaning: Institutional stability measured by ethnic quotas, not functionality.

Function in the power structures: Forces institutions to operate as ethnic coalitions.

European/international meaning: Institutions must serve citizens equally.

Consequences: Inefficiency and politicisation. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “institutional independence” and “professional standards”

54. The Other Two Peoples — triangular ethnic framing that blocks civic politics

Hegemonic meaning: Frames politics as a triadic conflict with mutually exclusive interests.

Function in the power structures: Obscures shared civic interests; amplifies tribal divisions.

European/international meaning: Citizens do not get reduced to tribal blocs.

Consequences: Prevents democratic coalitions.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “other political actors” or “other citizens”.

55. Returning to the Original Principles of Dayton — rhetorical rollback to pre-reform ethnocracy

Hegemonic meaning: Invoked to reverse reforms and restore ethnic dominance.

Function in the power structures: Blocks modernisation and Europeanisation.

European/international meaning: Dayton is subject to evolutionary alignment with EU law.

Consequences: Stagnation and regression.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “harmonisation with EU constitutional acquis”

56. Constitutional Position of Peoples — falsely elevating ethnic groups to the level of constitutional subjects

Hegemonic meaning: Claims that ethnic groups hold constitutional status equal to that of the state.

Function in the power structures: Reinterprets sovereignty as ethnic, not civic.

European/international meaning: Constitutional rights apply to individuals and institutions.

Consequences: Counters human-rights standards (Sejdic–Finci, Zornic).

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “constitutional rights of citizens”

57. Ethnic Decision-Making — reducing governance to ethnic negotiations

Hegemonic meaning: Decisions must reflect ethnic alignment rather than legal criteria.

Function in the power structures: Turns governance into ‘ethnic trading’.

European/international meaning: Decisions must be made in line with the law, expertise, and institutions. 

Consequences: Erosion of the rule of law and disregard for professionalism.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “institutional decision-making”.

58. Collective Responsibility of a People — distorting accountability through ethnic generalisation

Hegemonic meaning: Attributes responsibility or innocence to entire ethnic groups.

Function in the power structures: Fuels victimhood or superiority narratives.

European/international meaning: Responsibility is strictly individual.

Consequences: Blocks reconciliation.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “individual accountability”.

59. Balance Among Constituent Peoples — permanent ethnic equilibrium replacing democratic change

Hegemonic meaning: Claims stability requires maintaining ethnic balance rather than democratic alternation.

Function in the power structures: Prevents political competition.

European/international meaning: Balance is legal and institutional, not ethnic.

Consequences: Reinforces rigidity.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “institutional balance”

60. Ethnic Representation as a Constitutional Principle — embedding ethnocracy in the legal system

Hegemonic meaning: Claims ethnic representation is crucial to the constitution.

Function in the power structures: Anchors ethnic dominance across institutions.

European/international meaning: Representation is civic and electoral.

Consequences: Embeds discrimination in Constitution.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Use “citizen-based representation”

61. Christian (hegemonic political usage) — transforming a religious label into an ethnic-political identity

Hegemonic meaning: Used not as a religious identity but as a political category implying ethnic entitlement and civilizational hierarchy.

Function in the power structures: Constructs a narrative of “Christian peoples” versus “others,” legitimising politics of exclusion.

European/international meaning: Christianity is a religious identity, not a political category.

Consequences: Fuels ethno-religious polarisation.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “Christian” only in a religious context; avoid politicising it.

62. Muslim (hegemonic political usage) — reducing Bosniak ethnic identity to religious

Hegemonic meaning: Used to deny Bosniaks ethnic or national identity by reducing them solely to a religious category.

Function in the power structures: Delegitimises their ethnicity and frames them as outcasts.

European/international meaning: “Muslim” marks one’s religious affiliation, not a political status.

Consequences: Reinforces stereotypes and exclusion.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “Bosniak” for ethnic identity; “Muslim” only in a religious context.

63. Sarajevo / Sarajevo Basin — coded term implying domination by one ethnic center

Hegemonic meaning: Used as shorthand for an allegedly hegemonic Bosniak political center.

Function in the power structures: Delegitimises state institutions by portraying them as instruments of one ethnic group.

European/international meaning: Capitals represent the state, not an ethnic bloc.

Consequences: Weakens trust in state authority.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “state institutions in Sarajevo”.

64. Legitimate Representation (extended misuse) — redefining legitimacy through ethnic belonging

Hegemonic meaning: Claims that only an ethnically “authentic” representative can legitimately represent their group.

Function in the power structures: Disenfranchises citizens and blocks political pluralism.

European/international meaning: Legitimacy arises from elections and equal rights of all to vote.

Consequences: Counters democratic principles and ECHR rulings.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “elected representative”.

65. ‘Joint Institutions of BiH’ — misleading phrase aimed at minimising state sovereignty

Hegemonic meaning: Implies institutions are merely management bodies shared by ethnic groups, not bodies of a sovereign state.

Function in the power structures: Weakens perception of state authority.

European/international meaning: Institutions of the state are not “joint” but unitary bodies of state sovereignty.

Consequences: Encourages secessionist narratives.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “state institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina”.

66. Made up of / Consists of — linguistic manipulation in interpretation of DPA

Hegemonic meaning: Used to suggest that entities are pre-existing sovereign units that the state is made up of.

Function in the power structures: Strengthens claims that the state is a derivative or secondary entity.

European/international meaning: Bosnia and Herzegovina is a sovereign state; its entities are internal administrative units. Consequences: Constitutional distortion.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using precise legal terminology: “BiH consists of two entities.”

67. Christian Minority (political construct) — using religion to frame ethnic competition

Hegemonic meaning: Presents Croats and Serbs as endangered Christian minorities in a country with Muslim majority.

Function in the power structures: Gathers sympathies from abroad and creates geopolitical leverage.

European/international meaning: Minorities are defined by citizenship rights, not by their religion.

Consequences: Fuels external interference.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “minority communities” without religious framing.

68. The narrative of ‘persecution’ — creating the sense of  collective victimhood to use it for political mobilisation

Hegemonic meaning: Claims an ethnic group is under existential threat regardless of evidence.

Function in the power structures: Mobilises loyalty and justifies radical policies.

European/international meaning: Political claims must be evidence-based.

Consequences: Blocks reconciliation.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “documented human-rights violations” where applicable.

69. Bosnian  — civic state identity misrepresented as ethnic

Hegemonic meaning: Reduces “Bosnian” state identity to a Bosniak ethnic identity, thus, denying its civic meaning.

Function in the power structures: Delegitimises civic patriotism and shared identity.

European/international meaning: Bosnian identity is civic, and belongs to all of its citizens.

Consequences: Undermines social cohesion.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “Bosnian civic identity”.

70. Aggression by neighbouring countries- naming external influence clearly and legally

Hegemonic meaning: Often avoided or obscured to protect political interests.

Function in the power structures: Prevents accountability for foreign interference.

European/international meaning: Refers clearly to aggression or unlawful influence by another state.

Consequences: Perpetuates instability.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using precise terminology for unlawful actions by other states.

71. Media Hegemonism — controlling creation of narrative in order to reinforce ethnic dominance

Hegemonic meaning: Media used as ideological apparatus of ethnic oligarchies.

Function in the power structures: Shapes public perception and maintains ethnocratic order.

European/international meaning: Media must be independent and pluralistic.

Consequences: Public manipulation and crumbling of democratic.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Using “independent journalism” and “media pluralism”.

72. Ethnic cleansing /ethic persecution  

Hegemonic meaning: A euphemistic term used to describe forceful removal of population belonging to a particular ethnic or religious group as a technical or administrative process. 

Function in the power structure: Normalises extreme violence, depersonalises victims, and suspends moral and legal responsibility of the perpetrators.

European/international meaning: Forcible displacement and persecution of population constitutes a war crime and crime against humanity under international law.

Consequences: Symbolic violence, legitimisation of war crimes, revisionism. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards:

Using term ‘ETHNIC PERSECUTION’ which names the act of crime, responsibility and intention.

73. Victim of war crimes and genocide

Hegemonic meaning: The use of the term ‘died’ instead of ‘killed’ introduces the semantic of an accident and removes the responsibility of the perpetrators. Function in the power structure:  Depersonalises the victim and dilutes the nature of the crime. European/international meaning: A victim of war crime and genocide is a person against whom deliberate, targeted and organised violence has been committed, in violation of the norms of international humanitarian law. Consequences: euphemisation of the crime, loss of truth, and moral relativisation. Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Consistently using the term ‘murdered victim’, and insisting on perpetrators and responsibility.

74. Bosnian (prefix)

Hegemonic meaning: Systemic removal of the prefix ‘Bosnian’ as an allegedly administrative decision.

Function in the power of structure: Discursive expropriation of space and erasure of historical continuity.

European/ international meaning: Toponyms are part of the cultural, legal and identity continuity of a sovereign state in the international order of states.

Consequences: Memory violence, discouraging return, normalising ethnic homogeneity.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: Insisting on the return of the prefix ‘Bosnian’ and pre-war names.

75. ”International protectorate” (discrediting use)

Hegemonic meaning: The term is used to delegitimise the role of international institutions and mechanisms in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Function in the power structure: Weakening the institutional protection of the state and strengthening ethnopolitical autonomy.

European/international meaning: The international presence has a mandate to preserve peace, law and the constitutional order of a sovereign state.

Consequences: erosion of trust in institutions, strengthening separatist narratives.

Use as proposed in line with democratic standards: To precisely distinguish international oversight from state sovereignty.

76. UN General Assembly Resolution on SREBRENICA (2024) – Discoursive function  Hegemonic meaning: Attempts to relativize or reduce the resolution to a symbolic act without effect.

Function in the power structure: Opposing the normative authority of the United Nations and preserving revisionist narratives.

European/international meaning: The resolution represents an international consensus of UN member states on the facts of genocide and a normative framework of accountability. Consequences: political revisionism, continuation of hegemonic discourseUse as proposed in line with democratic standards:

Using the resolution as a legal, political and diplomatic tool within the international order of states.

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THE MOSTAR DECLARATION
On the Democratic Development and

European Future of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Mostar, 28 February 2026

THE MOSTAR DECLARATION
On the Democratic Development and European Future of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Starting from the indisputable millennia-long existence of our country, and its territorial and state-legal continuity;

Having in mind the decisive expression of the citizens’ will in favor of independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina at the Referendum of 1 March 1992, by which they plebiscitarily opted for an independent, sovereign and united state, and noting that on 22 May 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina became a full member of the United Nations and thereby acquired full international legal personality and subjectivity equivalent to that of all other UN member states;

Underlining that Annex IV of the Dayton Peace Agreement – the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina – unequivocally confirmed the legal continuity of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina through a new constitutional structure which contains two entities, without any right of secession for either entity;

Warning against the ill-intentioned and erroneous translation and interpretation of the constitutional term “constituent” (a part of the whole) as “constitutive” (an element upon which the existence of the whole depends), since the latter is a term that does not appear in the Constitution and it has been used with the aim of misleading the public and undermining the constitutional order. It is true that the constituent peoples (Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs) are neither the sole bearers of sovereignty, nor do they possess any exclusive sources of sovereignty. Consequently, specific peoples as such cannot negotiate, as sovereignty belongs to the State of Bosnia and Herzegovina and, by extension, to all its citizens.

Reminding of the experience of citizens that the armed aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina forcibly imposed an ethno-political model of governance characterized by discrimination and apartheid against democracy, whose symbolic and actual illustrations include Stolac, Srebrenica, Prijedor, and other local communities;

Recognizing the candidate status of Bosnia and Herzegovina for membership in the European Union, and affirming that its democratic and European path is possible only through deep constitutional and institutional reforms;

Acknowledging that Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state of all its citizens and that the current constitutional and legal order does not guarantee equality before the law or equal access to the exercise of human rights;

Witnessing that the constitutional order of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been openly and continuously challenged by ethnic and nationalist policies seeking to portray the country as an inherently impossible community organized solely on tribal principles;

Having in mind the obligation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to respect and implement the judgments of the European Court for Human Rights;

Following the unequivocal will of the citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina for democratic, peaceful and stable development of their homeland, Bosnia and Herzegovina;

We, the signatories of this Declaration – the Association of Independent Intellectuals Circle 99, the Youth Forum, and the Neretva Forum – hereby declare the following:

1. The reform of the Constitution and electoral legislation of Bosnia and Herzegovina must lead to the establishment of a society of equal citizens, in accordance with the European Convention on Human Rights and the standards of the Council of Europe.
2. Ethnicization of political rights and state institutions contradicts the fundamental principles of democratic legitimacy, political equality, and individual rights, and undermines the country’s long-term stability. Elected representatives are obliged to act in the interest of all citizens, and not exclusively in the interest of any ethnic, religious, or party group.
3. Bosnia and Herzegovina cannot be permanently organized as a system of ethnic distribution of political power. Instead, it must be organized as a democratic state in which all citizens are equal before the law and enjoy equal political rights, including the right to participate in the election of all public officials whose decisions directly affect their lives and rights.
4. Each citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina should have the right to elect each member and to be elected as a member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, since the decisions of each member of the Presidency have equal constitutional and legal effect and produce immediate consequences for all citizens, regardless of their ethnic, religious, or other affiliation. The exclusion of citizens who do not identify with any so-called “constituent” peoples constitutes discrimination, as confirmed unequivocally by the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights.
5. Implementation of the judgments of the European Court for Human Rights and the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is not a political question but represents a constitutional and international legal obligation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it is a key condition for progress of the country on its European and democratic path. Non-implementation of these judgments represents an anti-constitutional practice, which has a form of a silent coup d’état.
6. Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in accordance with the current Constitution, are not ethnic representatives but elected state officials accountable to all citizens. Considering realistic timeframes, the general elections in 2026 should be conducted under existing legislation, accompanied by a clear commitment to ensure that by the elections of 2030 a single President of Bosnia and Herzegovina may be elected across the entire territory of the State.
7. At elections, citizens elect their political representatives according to their personal convictions. The disputable claim that a citizen who votes for a candidate from another ethnic group thereby “elects a member of the Presidency to another ethnic group” constitutes an ill-intended and anti-constitutional interpretation of democratic voting rights.
8. Anti-Bosnian and anti-European policies supported by neighboring hegemonic projects, previously sentenced for war crimes, joint criminal enterprises, and genocide, pose a direct threat to the survival of Bosnia and Herzegovina and must be countered through clear and decisive pro-state politics.
9. We firmly condemn the denial of judgments concerning genocide and war crimes, as well as attempts to reaffirm previously sentenced policies of secession, para-states, and ethnic-based territorial fragmentation through federalization or consociational models, which serve as euphemisms for further disintegration and dissolution of the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
10. To ensure that all citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina enjoy peace and prosperity in their homeland, it is necessary for all political structures to give priority to the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while respecting the historical experience in which rigid “take it or leave it” or “either-or” approaches have proven unproductive and incapable of delivering progress, whereas an inclusive “both-and” approach has the potential to do so.

Through this Declaration we hereby affirm our full commitment to a democratic, rule-of-law-based, and European state of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a country of equal citizens and a shared future.

For the Youth Forum 99                                                                    For the AII Circle 99

———————————–                                                            ——————————-
Muhamed Hamzić, President                                                            Adil Kulenović, President

For the Neretva Forum Branch Office of the Circle 99

——————————
Edin Batlak, President

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IZJAVA KONVENCIJE UNSKO- SANSKOG KANTONA „BOSNA JE BOSANSKA “

1. Konvencija je održana u znaku nadstranačkog političkog jedinstva građana, pijeteta i odgovornosti svih uključenih subjekata, predstavnika akademske zajednice, nevladinih organizacija, političkih stranaka i građana, za napredak države, slobodu i ravnopravnost svih ljudi Bosne i Hercegovine.
2. Tradicija hrabre odbrane cjelovite bosanske države na zapadnim granicama, Bosanske Krajine, na Konvenciji je potvrđena, sa podjednakom nepokolebljivošću, odlučnošću i spremnošću za borbu u svim okolnostima i svim sredstvima koje izazovi vremena budu nametali.
3. Konvencija izražava najveću vjernost obnovi višestoljetne bosanske države, ali insistira na daljem demokratskom razvoju primjereno novim historijskim okolnostima demokracije i modernom evropskom – građanskom konceptu države. Republika Bosna i Hercegovina je format političkog uređenja kojem nužno moramo težiti, a koji garantuje prosperitetnu budućnost, mir i stabilnost za sve njene građane.
4. Koliko god da bude trnovit put izgradnje slobodne države i obnove inkluzivnog društva ne smije se odustati od konačnog skidanja nametnutih etničkih okova  i tretmana BiH kao „posebnog slučaja“. Nećemo graditi državu mimo standarda razvijenih demokratskih država svijeta. Reforma Ustava na republikanskim, građanskim demokratskim principima jeste pouzdan put i jasan cilj.
5. Konvencija insistira na: dosljednoj implementaciji svih šest presuda Evropskog suda za ljudska prava; ukidanju svih oblika diskriminacije na teritoriji cijele države; stavljanje građanina kao pojedinca u fokus ustavno-pravnog sistema i jačanje institucija države Bosne i Hercegovine. To je put  izgradnje moderne bosanske građanske nacionalne države – koja nije u suprotnosti sa postojećim kulturnim identitetima, etničkim, narodnim opredjeljenjima, nego ih sve objedinjuje. Bosanska nacija je historijska i savremena politička činjenica priznata u Ujedinjenim nacijama.  
6. Konvencija traži ukidanje specijalnih i paralelnih veza Srbije i Hrvatske sa etničkim grupama i entitetima. Specijalne i paralelne veze su instrument urušavanja suvereniteta države Bosne i Hercegovine i realizacije velikodržavnih ambicija susjednih država.
7. Konvencija odbacuje politiku stalnih ustupaka rušiteljima države, sljedbenicima udruženih zločinačkih poduhvata na Republiku BiH (1992-1995).  Necivilizacijski princip „dogovora naroda“ pokazao je razarajuću moć u proteklih više od trideset (30) godina i mora biti odbačen u političkom životu. Državotvorne političke snage moraju energično odbaciti politiku trulih kompromisa na račun državnog integriteta. To se može postići ofanzivnom borbom i ubjedljivom argumentacijom moderne demokracije.
8. Konvencija ističe da je odgovor na aktuelnu sigurnosnu krizu prvorazredno političko pitanje na koje se mora dati realan i praktičan odgovor. To se može postići predupređenjem svih kriznih situacija izgradnjom sistema polazeći od građana, od osnovnih ka višim strukturama vlasti i institucijama države.
9. Konvencija upozorava sve donosioce odluka na potrebu i nužnost izgradnje strategije povezivanja države od istoka ka zapadu, od Višegrada do Bihaća,  u saobraćajnom, kulturnom, obrazovnom, ekonomskom i  svakom drugom smislu, što do sada nije bilo prepoznato u javnim politikama Bosne i Hercegovine.  

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